In my limited experience, caterpillars in my milkweed garden usually did not reach the critical pupation stage where they develop into a chrysalis. Even the last chrysalis in my milkweed garden was destroyed by parasitoid tachinid fly larvae and Argentine ants. The remedy appears to be raising the larvae indoors within a terrarium or plastic enclosure and keeping them well-supplied with milkweed leaves from your garden. There are some excellent references on the Internet with instructions on rearing caterpillars & chrysalises (pupae) indoors and releasing adults when their wings are sufficiently dry for flight.

"Monarch dispersal across the Atlantic was closely tied with the availability of milkweed larval host plants. Both Gomphocarpus fruticosus and Asclepias curassavica were prominently established in the northern Africa and Iberian Peninsula before initial monarch sightings east of the Atlantic Ocean. More recent anthropogenically introduced host plants in Southern Spain are thriving and seem to be expanding into the Mediterranean region where a favorable climate and growing conditions only appear to be encouraging the milkweed spread (specifically Gomphocarpus physocarpus). With established host plants, monarch butterflies that were blown off of their migratory pathway from North America to Mexico could still successfully colonize areas where host plants were available, like southern Spain and Portugal. While larvae or butterflies could have hitchhiked across the Atlantic, rare monarch sightings on the coast of the UK, likely caused by winds blowing vagrant monarchs across the sea, show that human interference is not necessary for monarchs to cross the Atlantic Ocean."

"Don't Grow Tropical Milkweed" by Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation

Go To Online Link For: Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation

"Tropical milkweed (Asclepias curassavica) is a non-native milkweed that has exploded in popularity in response to the demand for milkweed. It is simple to propagate, allowing growers to rapidly produce the plant for quick sale. The plant is also attractive, both to humans and monarchs, providing flowers and lush green foliage throughout the growing season – and that’s a problem.

Tropical milkweed becomes a problem when planted in temperate areas where it does not die back in winter. A protozoan parasite of monarch butterflies, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha or OE for short, can travel with monarchs visiting the plants and become deposited on leaves. When caterpillars hatch and start eating the plant, they ingest the OE. High OE levels in adult monarchs have been linked to lower migration success in the eastern monarch population, as well as reductions in body mass, lifespan, mating success, and flight ability.

When native milkweeds die back after blooming, the parasite dies along with them so that each summer’s monarch population feeds on fresh, parasite-free foliage. In contrast, tropical milkweed that remains evergreen through winter allows for OE levels to build up on the plant over time, meaning successive generations of monarch caterpillars feeding on the plant can be exposed to dangerous levels of OE."

Dark areas on chrysalis may indicate parasites: (1) Bacteria or virus infection. (2) Protozoan parasite (Ophryocystis elektroscirrha). (3) Chalcid wasp, tachinid fly or parasitic wasp laid eggs inside larva or pupa.

Butterflies and moths belong to the large insect order Lepidoptera. They have complete metamorphosis (holometabolous) consisting of a egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa and adult (imago). The fully-formed, quiescent pupa of a butterfly is also called a chrysalis. Moth larva may spin an outer cocoon that contains pupa, or transform directly into a pupa without a cocoon. For example, the tomato hornworm (hawkmoth larva) burrows into the ground and transforms into a large pupa resembling a picnic jug. Larvae of most moth species spin a silken cocoon in which the pupa develops.

Monarch butterflies have a remarkable migration cycle each year. Since they cannot survive the cold winters of the northern United States and Canada they must migrate thousands of miles in order to complete their life cycle. Unlike birds, the Monarchs who go south do not return where they were born. It is their offspring who make this long, arduous journey. All of the Monarchs east of the Rocky Mountains overwinter on forested mountain tops in central Mexico within the Transvolcanic Range. All of the Monarchs west of the Rockies travel south along the Pacific Coast, where they overwinter in trees from north of San Francisco to San Diego. They are distasteful to some predators because of toxic chemicals ingested by the larvae while feeding on their host milkweeds (Asclepias).

This female monarch butterfly came from my insect collection for Cal State University, Los Angeles entomology class over 50 years ago.

Because of an accumulation of steroidal glycosides during its larval feeding stage, the adult Monarch butterfly is toxic and distasteful. Insect-eating birds soon recognize this brightly colored species and reject it as a food source. Another butterfly with similar colorations and markings is the Viceroy (Limenitis archippus). For many years, textbooks cited the Monarch and Viceroy as a classic example of Batesian mimicry, in which the Viceroy mimic was perfectly palatable to would-be predators. Recent studies indicate that the Viceroy is not an acceptable meal for birds, and therefore, these two species represent an example of Mullerian mimicry.

The single carpel of a follicle splits open along one seam. When completely opened, the carpel resembles a thick, dried leaf. It is easy to see that the single carpel of a follicle is a modified, seed-bearing leaf (megasporophyll).

As I have stated on Wayne's Word, I am never certain about the sex of tarantula hawk wasps, or if it is safe to handle one. In general, males are apparently a little smaller than females, and several species are reported in my area. I am not about to allow one to sting me just to see if it is a stinging female or nonstinging male, especially since the sting is reportedly excruciating. Females often have coiled antennae; however, they can apparently also straighten their antennae like wasps in my photo. I also don't trust antennae color to determine their sex. According to Bugguide.net, Pepsis mildei has orange antennae. Other species in the Twin Oaks Valley area have black antennae. One thing for sure, these large, back wasps with red wings are definitely attracted to milkweed blossoms.

Return To WAYNE'S WORD Home Page Return To NOTEWORTHY PLANTS Page Go To Biology GEE WHIZ TRIVIA Page Go To The LEMNACEAE ON-LINE Page